I, Muehlenhaus. U, Riedermaus.

Posted here for back up purposes, in case I end up throwing my laptop out the bloody window.

I think I am going insane. I think I am going insane. I live, eat, and speak spatial cognition, visual variables, spatio-temporal representation, and dynamic cartography, before geovisualizing myself as an airplane flying away... to sleep.

Aber, H. E. (1988). Can cartography be sexy? New directions in magazine cartography at the national geographic society. Cartographie dans les médias. M. J. Gauthier and H. E. Aber. Sillery, Québec, Presses de l'Université du Québec: 77-82.

Art directors on Madison Ave can use sexy imagery to attract attention in the slick world of advertising. But what can cartographers at the NGS do to attract the reader's attention in their attempts to communicate cultural and geographic information through the medium of journalistic cartography? This paper reviews various National Geographic maps to give a behind the scenes look at the process used to design, research and produce maps in a magazine format. We see how maps can be used to create a mood, appeal to peoples' compassion and in a visual and informative manner reflect the essence of a magazine article in capsulized form. The relationship between map, text and photographic coverage is examined to show the interdependency of various elements used to create a layer cake of data printed in the pages of NGS magazine. Before a map can be created the cartographer/designer must understand the editorial and graphic format of the magazine. It is in this context that the map will be displayed and viewed as a piece of editorial graphics used to communicate information.

Acevedo, W. and P. Masuoka (1997). "Time-series animation techniques for visualizing urban growth." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 423-435.

Time-series animation is a visually intuitive way to display urban growth. Animations of landuse change for the Baltimore-Washington region were generated by showing a series of images one after the other in sequential order. Before creating an animation, various issues which will affect the appearance of the animation should be considered, including the number of original data frames to use, the optimal animation display speed, the number of intermediate frames to create between the known frames, and the output media on which the animations will be displayed. To create new frames between the known years of data, the change in each theme (i.e. urban development, water bodies, transportation routes) must be characterized and an algorithm developed to create the in-between frames.

Example time-series animations were created using a temporal GIS database of the Baltimore-Washington area. Creating the animations involved generating raster images of the urban development, water bodies, and principal transportation routes; overlaying the raster images on a background image; and importing the frames to a movie file. Three-dimensional perspective animations were created by draping each image over digital elevation data prior to importing the frames to a movie file.

Andrienko, G. L. and N. V. Andrienko (1999). "Interactive maps for visual data exploration." International Journal of Geographical Information Science 13(4): 355-374.

Descartes (formerly called IRIS) is a software system designed to

support visual exploration of spatially referenced data, e.g. demographic, economical, or cultural information about geographical objects or locations such as countries, districts, or cities. Descartes uses two integrated services: automated presentation of data on maps, and facilities to interactively manipulate these maps. Automated mapping is enabled by incorporating generic knowledge on map design into the system. Descartes selects suitable presentation methods according to characteristics of the variables to be analysed and relationships among those variables if more than one were selected simultaneously. The cartographic knowledge of Descartes allows non-cartographers to receive proper presentations of their data, and the automation of map construction helps the users to save valuable time that can better be used for data analysis and problem-solving.

Exploratory data analysis requires highly interactive, dynamic data displays. We strive to develop various interactive techniques for map manipulation that could enhance the expressiveness of maps and thus promote data exploration. We are convinced that a technique can be made especially productive if it is directed towards a particular presentation method: it can utilise peculiarities of this method and support those analytical operations that best fit to the method.

Balchin, W. G. V. (1988). The media map watch in United Kingdom. Cartographie Dans les Medias. M.-J. Gauthier. Montreal, Presses de l'Universite du Quebec: 33-48.

Bertin, J. (1983). Semiology of Graphics. Madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin Press.

Blades, M., S. Ungar, et al. (1999). "Map use by adults with visual impairments." Professional Geographer 51(4): 539-553.

Blaut, J. M. (1999). "Maps and spaces." Professional Geographer 51(4): 510-515.

Two quite different concepts of space are important in geography and environmental psychology. One is hte concept of macro-environment, of space as geographical scale. The other is the concept of form-at-a-timeless-instant: of naiv geometry. Confusing these two concepts leads to serious errors. This paper examines some methodological and philosophical sources of this confusion, and points to a number of research problems in geography and psychology that can benefit from an untangling of the two concepts of space. One such problem is hte need to understand the development of mapping abilities in very young children. Another is the larger question of building a body of theory to explain the development of macro-environmental cognition and behavior.

Blaut, J. M., D. Stea, et al. (2003). "Mapping as a cultural and cognitive universal." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 93(1): 165-185.

We hypothesize that nearly all humans, in all cultures, acquire the ability to read and use map-like models in very early childhood, and that this ability is a fundamental part of human ecological adaptation, comparable in many ways to tool use. Evidence pertaining to this theory should be sought in three kinds of research: studies in differing cultures of the development of young children’s ability to use map-like models; studies probing for evidence of maplike modeling across the ethnographic spectrum; and studies probing for evidence of the use of map-like models in prehistory. We are pursuing all three lines of research. However, our main focus thus far has been on the developmental dimension of the problem. Here, we report evidence that supports the universality hypothesis from seven empirical studies carried out on mapping abilities of three- to five-year-old children in severalWestern and non-Western cultures; we offer a general ecological theory of the development of mapping abilities, a theory that appears to explain the evidence elicited and accords with the universality hypothesis; and we discuss the implications of this work for early childhood education.

Key Words: children’s geography, cultural universals, development of mapping abilities, ecology of map-like modeling.

Brodlie, K. (1994). A typology for scientific visualization. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 34-41.

Brodlie, K. (2005). Models for collaborative visualization. Exploring Geovisualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 463-475.

As more and more research is tackled by teams, often geographically distributed, it becomes increasingly important to find good approaches to 'collaborative geovisualization'. In this chapter, we develop three models for collaborative visualization: in the first, there is a single application, but its interface is shared amongst several researchers; in the second, each researcher runs their own instance of a single application, keeping their input parameters synchronised; and in the third, each researcher runs their own distinct application, independently of the others, but data may be passed between them. We then discuss tools that support these three models of working, and report on practical experiences of using these tools over a number of years, most recently in a collaborative geovisualization experiment with colleagues in New Zealand.

Brodlie, K., D. Fairbairn, et al. (2005). Connecting people, data and resources -- distributed geovisualization. Exploring Geovisualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 425-443.

This chapter illustrates how challenging problems in geovisualization may be solved by harnessing activities on a distributed scale: bringing a range of people, a range of data and a range of resources to bear on the problem. The discussion is framed around a scenario of environmental crisis management – a flood emergency – which is typical of the challenges that only a distributed approach can solve in an effective and timely manner. We discuss some of the tools and technologies already available to meet the needs of this scenario, and some of the obstacles that remain to be overcome. We finish by reviewing the scenario against the recent Research Agenda of the ICA Commission on Visualization and Virtual Environments.

Bunch, R. L. and R. E. Lloyd (2006). "The cognitive load of geographic information." The Professional Geographer 58(2): 209-220.

Buttenfield, B. and M. K. Beard (1994). Graphical and geographical components of data quality. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 150-157.

Card, S. K., J. D. Mackinlay, et al. (1999). Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think. San Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc.

Cartwright, W. (1999). "Extending the map metaphor using web delivered multimedia." International Journal of Geographical Information Science 13(4): 335-353.

The use of multimedia by cartographers has enabled new and exciting products to be designed and produced. These `New Media’ artefacts range from products that do nothing more than o€ er picture book `page turning’ CD-ROM publications that require almost no user interaction to highly interactive packages

delivered via the World Wide Web. In spite of the potential a€ orded by new presentation media and delivery mechanisms, most presentations of geographical information continue to rely on traditional map-based forms of information delivery.

Should cartographers stop at distributed multimedia cartographic information

products that only use the map metaphor? Or should they explore the other metaphorical avenues that distributed multimedia affords. Multimedia technology has now matured to enable multimedia cartography to be produced to more effectively portray and communicate user-targeted geographical information.

This paper proposes that distributed multimedia cartography should explore

the possibilities offered by this new conglomerate medium and define both the

potential uses of such a powerful geographical information depiction tool and the limitations that should perhaps be placed on using the medium in a cartographic context.

Cassidy, J. (2006). Mind Games: what neuroeconomics tells us about money and the brain. New Yorker: 28-37.

A review of economists' recent fixation on cognitive psychology to understand human economic behavior. It turns out that humans are not as rational or predictable as we might expect. In fact, humans are very irrational due to a plethora of outside emotional and social factors. Economists are tapping the depths of cognitive science to try and figure out why humans act so illocigally when it comes to money.

Coors, V., C. Elting, et al. (2005). Presenting route instructions on mobile devices: from textual directions to 3D visualization. Exploring Geovisualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 529-550.

In this chapter, we evaluate several means of presenting route instructions to a mobile user. Starting from an abstract language-independent description of a route segment, we show how to generate various presentations for a mobile device ranging from spoken instructions to 3D visualizations. For the latter type, we provide a novel compression algorithm that makes 3D presentations feasible even in a mobile setup, and we report the results of a pilot study using 3D visualizations on a mobile device. In addition, we examine the relationship between the quality of positional information, available resources and the different types of presentations. The paper concludes with a set of guidelines that can help to determine which presentation to choose in a given situation.

Couclelis, H. (1992). People manipulate objects (but cultivate fields): Beyond the raster-vector debate in GIS. International Conference GIS: From Space to Territory: Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning. Pisa, Italy, Springer-Verlag.

The ongoing debate in GIS regarding the relative merits of vector versus raster representations of spatial information is usually couched in technical terms. yet the technical question of the most appropriate data structure begs the philosophical question of the most appropriate conceptualization of geographic space. The paper confronts this latter question in the context of the opposition between the "object" and "field" views of space. I suggest that GIS can turn a rather dry debate into a source of insights regarding the nature of its subject matter by learning from how people actually experience and deal with the geographic world. Human cognition indeed appears to make use of both the object and field views, but at different geographic scales, and for different purposes. These observations suggest a solist aof desiderata for the next round of thinking about spatial representaiton in GIS.

Crampton, J. W. (2002). "Interactivity types in geographic visualization." Cartography and Geographic Information Science 29(2): 85-98.

Davies, C. and D. Medyckyj-Scott (1994). Introduction: the importance of human factors. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 189-192.

DiBiase, D. (1990). "Visualization in the earth sciences." Earth and Mineral Sciences Bulletin59(2): 13-18.

Lays out his categorization of mapping as being either exploratory, confirmatory, synthesizing, or presenting. The first two fall into the private realm, and the second two fall into the public realm. The first two are classified as "visual thinking" and the latter two as "visual communication."

DiBiase, D., A. M. MacEachren, et al. (1992). "Animation and the role of map design in scientific visualization." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 19(4): 201-214, 265-266.

Scientists visualize data for a range of purposes, from exploring unfamiliar data sets to communicating insights revealed by visual analyses. As the supply of numerical environmental data has incrased, so has the need for effective visual methods, especially for exploratory data analysis. Map animation is particularly attractive to earth system scientists who typically study llarge spatio-temporal data sets. In addtion to the "visual variables" of static maps, animated maps are composed of three basic design elements or "dynamic variables" -- scene duration, rate of change between scenes, and scene order. The dynamic variables can be used to emphasize the location of a phenomenon, emphasize its attributes, or visualize change in its spatial, temporal, and attribute dimension. In combination with static maps, graphs, diagrams, images, and sound, animation enhances analysts ability to express data in a variety of complementary forms.

Dobson, M. (1979). "Visual information processing during cartographic communication." Cartographic Journal 16: 14-20.

Article arguing that unclassified mapping is too cognitively complex for humans to derive understanding or knowledge from.

Dorling, D. (1992). "Stretching space and splicing time: from cartographic animation to interactive visualization." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 19(4): 215-227, 267-270.

Animation and cartography present very different traditions to combine. This paper offers some ideas about the directions such a combination might take and presents a series of cartographic animation and visualization case studies involving several unusual representations. These examples range from the interactive exploration of high-resolution, two-dimensional images, to the use of animation in understanding temporal change and three-dimensional structure. Some of the conventional wisdom about the appropriate software applications and visual representations to use is questioned. Exploratory analysis, presenting facts to an interested audience and creating a dramatic image, are seen as distinct tasks, requiring distinctly different animation methods.

Dorling, D. (1994). Cartograms for visualizing human geography. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. West Sussex, England, John Wiley and Sons Ltd: 85-102.

Defines Visualization: P85: means meaking visible what was obscure, what could not easily be imagined or seen. ... By transforming large amounts of data into pictures, we can begin to understand the underlying structure."

Cartograms do not need to show differences via spatial distortion. Can distort points and lines, not just polygons and topology.

P100: "Cartograms can be seen today as a kind of artifical reality which we deliberately construct to obtain knowledge. They allos us to optimize visualization of a chosen body of information, and with population cartograms we wish to give every person equal prominence in our picture."

Cartograms help create equality in representation of people, not space.

Cartograms are the way of the future. They allow us to see structural patterns in our data while also allowing us to visualize parts of the objects being looked at -- both macro and micro scaled analysis. P100

Alternatives to cartograms have been suggested in literature "but often result in greater disadvantages." P100

Argues even better than animation. When zooming in on a cartogram, one can often see that patterns seen at the large scale are often repeated at the small scale. Cannot see this with animation.

Links well to argument made by Montello and Freundschuh 1995, P172. Check it out! :>)

Dorling, D. and D. Fairbairn (1997). Mapping: ways of representing the world. London, Longman.

Illustrates how maps tell us as much about the people and the powers which create them, as about the places they show. Presents historical and contemporary evidence of how the human urge to describe, understand and control the world is presented through the medium of mapping, together with the individual and environmental constraints of the creator of the map.

Dykes, J. A. (1997). "Exploring spatial data representation with dynamic graphics." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 345-370.

Dynamic mapping capabilities are providing enormous potential for visualizing spatial data. Dynamic maps which exhibit observer-related behaviour are particularly appropriate for exploratory analysis, where multiple, short-term, slightly different, views of a data set, each produced with a specific task or question in mind, are an essential part of the analytical process.

This paper and the associated coloured and dynamic illustrations take advantage of World Wide Web (WWW) delivery and the digital medium by using interactive graphics to introduce an approach to dynamic cartography based upon the Tcl/Tk graphical user interface (GUI) builder. Generic ways of programming observer-related behaviour, such as brushing, dynamic re-expression, and dynamic comparison, are outlined and demonstrated to show that specialist dynamic views can be developed rapidly in an open, flexible, and high-level graphic environment.

Such an approach provides opportunities to reinforce traditional cartographic and statistical representations of spatial data with dynamic graphics and transient symbolism which give supplementary information about a symbol or statistic on demand. A series of examples from recent work which uses the approach demonstrates ways in which dynamic graphics can be effective in complementing methods of measurement and mapping which are well established in geographic enquiry.

Dykes, J. A., A. M. MacEachren, et al. (2005). Exploring Geovisualization. Exploring Geovisualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 3-19.

This introductory chapter makes the case for exploring geovisualization from multiple, inter-disciplinary perspectives and presents the structure of the book in which this is achieved. It does so by introducing geovisualization and drawing upon the work of the International Cartographic Association (ICA) Commission on Visualization and Virtual Environments in reporting research foci and challenges in geovisualization and documenting recommendations for action through which these can be addressed. An examination of the nature of geovisualization and its various interfaces with cognate fields of academic study is identified as a key requirement. The objective is to foster communication, encourage collaboration and augment existing knowledge with that from relevant disciplines. The organization and structure of a geovisualization workshop in which these requirements were addressed is outlined. The outcomes of the workshop form the basis of this book. The book, in turn, supports and broadens the process of collaboration through reports on current research efforts and cross-disciplinary sharing of knowledge about our related fields of expertise. It contains a series of introductory contributions followed by sections entitled 'creating instruments for ideation', 'using 3d in visualization', 'connecting people data and resources' and 'making useful and usable geovisualization'. Each of these sections is preceded by a collaboratively produced co-authored introduction to a particular focus for geovisualization. Cross-references between these chapters and sections are common and many are explicitly identified in the text. Readers are encouraged to further relate concepts, issues and themes that are apparent between chapters in the book and as they explore geovisualization and we collectively advance this evolving field.

Egbert, S. L. and T. A. Slocum (1992). "EXPLOREMAP: an exploration system for choropleth maps." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82: 275-288.

Ehlschlaeger, C. R., A. M. Shortridge, et al. (1997). "Visualizing spatial data uncertainty using animation." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 387-395.

This paper examines methodologies for dynamically displaying information about uncertainty. Modeling uncertainty in elevation data results in the generation of dozens or hundreds of realizations of the elevation surface. Producing animations of these surfaces is an approach to exploratory data visualization that may assist the researcher in understanding the effect of uncertainty on spatial applications as well as in communicating the results of the research to a wider audience. A nonlinear method for interpolation between the surface realizations is introduced which allows for smooth animation while maintaining the surface characteristics prescribed by the uncertainty model.

Evans, B. J. (1997). "Dynamic display of spatial data-reliability: does it benefit the map user?" Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 409-422.

As users of maps we are dependent upon their veracity and by extension the reliability of the data they contain. Several research projects have explored possible methods of visually representing data certainty, a kind of metadata; methods considered include depicting the metadata as a map that is separate from the data map, imbedding the metadata into the data map, and creating an interactive environment allowing simultaneous viewing of both data and metadata. A practical consideration, as we develop methods for graphic depiction of data reliability, is the reaction to and acceptance of proposed methods by the map user. This research studied how maps containing graphically depicted reliability information are used. Potential “usability” of the cartographic display of data reliability is explored by the type of map user (novices versus experts, and males versus females) and the type of map use (assessment of map reliability, confidence in data reliability assessments, and ability to judge the proportion of the areas within the map containing highly reliable data). This study addressed these issues by exploring and analyzing subject responses to an interactive cartographic display of data and its level of reliability. The graphic depiction of reliability information was found to be accessible and comprehensible by all subjects; novice or expert, and male or female. Two methods of combining data and reliability information, as a composite static display and as an animation, were both found to be helpful by the subjects tested. Two other methods of obtaining reliability information, a map displaying only reliability information and an interactive “toggling” between the data and reliability information were not found to be as efficient or effective as the combination methods.

Fisher, P. (1993). "Visualizing uncertainty in soil maps by animation." Cartographica 30(2&3): 20-27.

Taken from text verbatim (p20): This paper concentrates on the application of Error Animation to soil maps. The first section discusses the structure of error in the soil map which, in common with many forms of environmental map, suffers from the conceptual and procedural shortcomings. The appropriateness of error animation to soils data is next described, and three alternative algorithms which use randomization to animate the error fo the soil map are presented. Subsequent discussion concentrates on the potential of this method, as well as some further research issues. Sample illustrations are included in this paper, but the method described is fundamentally dynamic, and static illustrations fail to convey the real impact of the displays. Therefore a section on availability describes the hardware needed to run demonstration software, and how to acquire the software.

Fisher, P. (1994). Animation and sound for the visualization of uncertain spatial information. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 181-185.

Freitag, U. (1992). Societies without Maps: An essay on cartography.

Freundschuh, S. M. (1992). Is there a relationship between spatial cognition and environmental patterns? International Conference GIS: From Space to Territory: Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning. Pisa, Italy, Springer-Verlag.

One aspect of a fundamental theory of spatial representations is human-cognitive representation. This research includes a review of cognitive models of spatial knowledge across disciplines, upon which a proposed comprehensive model is based. This model includes geographic facts, route, and configurational knowledge as kinds of (spatial) geographical knowledge. This research also investigatees the acquisition of spatial knowledge. An experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that a regular environment (gridded road pattern) promotes the acquisition of metrical configurational knowledge from procedural knowledge and greater navigation experience, whereas an irregular enviironment (serpentine road patter) does not. A irregular and regular environment were used in this study. The results of the experiment were varied. There was, however, tentative support to suggest that the pattern of the environment does effect the accuracy of spatial knowledge.

Freundschuh, S. M. and R. Kitchin (1999). "Contemporary thought and practice in cognitive mapping research." Professional Geographer 51(4): 507-510.

Gahegan, M. (2005). Beyond tools: visual support for the entire process of GIScience. Exploring Geovisualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 83-99.

Progress to date within the geovisualization research community has led to some very useful, innovative tools and systems. However, these tools are typically not easy to integrate or use together, nor is it always clear what scientific activities they help to facilitate. In order to bring visualization tools to the fore, we must understand clearly what roles they play within the entire process of scientific investigation, including the various tasks that a researcher might undertake and the different kinds of reasoning that we wish visualization to support or enable. This chapter presents an overview of the science process, gives examples of how current approaches to visualization support certain research activities and suggests a framework by which additional aspects of: i) science activity, ii) reasoning mode (inference), iii) outcomes, and iv) pre-requisite data and knowledge could be used to better define the role or roles that different visualization tools can play, and also in how such tools might be better connected or integrated together. The chapter ends by summarizing the research challenges that follow from a more semantic, process-oriented approach to the use and integration of geovisualization tools.

Gilmartin, P. (1988). The recall of journalistic maps and other graphics. Cartographie dans les médias. M. J. Gauthier and H. E. Aber. Sillery, Québec, Presses de l'Université du Québec: 83-90.

Research has shown tha tmost people are able to recall only a very small percent of the news items which they read. Various researchers have stated, however, that maps and other graphics in mass-media serve to attract reader's attention and help them remember accompanying articles. This assumption, along with a desire to enhance the overall visual appeal of the newspapers, has prompted many editors to increase the use of graphics of all kinds of news stories and features. The study reported here addressed three questions regarding journalistic maps and features. The study reported here addressed three questions regarding journalistic maps and other graphics: 1) when people read a newspaper, are they aware of maps and other graphics in it; 2) do they learn anything from maps which accompany news stories; and 34) does the presence of illustrations increase the attention given to a news sotry. In this study, graphics did perform the latter function. It appears that subjects did not pay much attention directly to the graphics, however.

Goodchild, M. F., B. Buttenfield, et al. (1994). Introduction to visualizing data validity. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 141-149.

Goodchild, M. F., L. Chih-Chang, et al. (1994). Visualizing fuzzy maps. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 158-167.

Harley, J. B. (1992). Deconstructing the map. Writing worlds: discourse, text, and metaphor in the representation of landscape. T. J. Barnes and J. S. Duncan. New York, Routledge: 231-247.

Hearnshaw, H. M. (1994). Psychology and displays in GIS. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 193-199.

Hearnshaw, H. M. and D. J. Unwin, Eds. (1994). Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. Chichester, England, Wiley and Sons.

Hoffman, D. D. (1998). Visual Intelligence. New York, Norton and Company, Inc. .

Jiang, B. (1996). "Cartographic visualization: analytical and communication tools." Cartography25(2): 1-11.

Visualization is attracting more and more attention in a variety of disciplines including the domains of geographic information systems (GIS) and cartography, since the US National Science Foundation (NSF) workshop held on the Visualization in Scientific Computing initiative. The focus of this paper is on cartographic visualization as analytical and communication tools. To achieve this aim, the paper begins with an introduction concerning visualization research pursuits. This is followed by the definition and scope of cartographic visualization, then the features of cartographic visualization involving animation, interatctive exploration and hypermedia are elaborated. Three technical levels of visualization, i.e., hardware/software, visualization tools, and applications, are also presented.

Keim, D. A., C. Panse, et al. (2005). Information visualization: scope, techniques and opportunities for geovisualization. Exploring Visualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 23-52.

Never before in history has data been generated at such high volumes as it is today. Exploring and analyzing the vast volumes of data has become increasingly difficult. Information visualization and visual data mining can help to deal with the flood of information. The advantage of visual data exploration is that the user is directly involved in the data mining process. There are a large number of information visualization techniques that have been developed over the last two decades to support the exploration of large data sets. In this chapter, we provide an overview of information visualization and visual data mining techniques, and illustrate them using a few examples. We demonstrate that the application of information visualization methods provides new ways of analyzing geospatial data.

Kitchin, R., M. Blades, et al. (1997). "Relations between psychology and geography." Environment and Behavior 29(4): 554-573.

The special issue of Environment and Behavior, "Relations between environmental psychology and allied fields," edited by Seymour Wapner (1995) contained seven articles exploring the links between environmental psychology and other subfields of psychology. The articles examined how environmental psychology with its emphasis on context "may serve to integrate psychology as a whole, and to bridge the gap between the interests of professionally orientated and academic psychologists" (Wapner 1995, p5). This article expands on this theme by exploring and summarizing the links between psychology and the allied field of human geography. It is suggested that an integrative framework needs to be adopted to capture the ways that these two disciplines, (and others such as planning and anthropology), have become complementary, and by doing so have provided a broader theoretical conceptualization of environment and behavior interactions.

Kraak, M.-J. (1998). "The cartographic visualization process: from presentation to exploration." Cartographic Journal 35(1): 11-15.

In the context of spatial data handling, the cartographic visualization process is considered to be the translation or conversion of spatial data from a database into graphics. The cartographic visualization process is changing: changing from being supply-driven to demand-driven. More people will be involved in making mpas. More maps will be created, many of them only for a single purpose. These maps are changing from being final products presenting spatial information to interim products that facilitate our visual thinking. These changes require a different type of cartographer, someone who is an integral part in the process of spatial data handling. As well as traditional cartographic design skills, cartographers must make their knowledge available to fellow geoscientists using interactive real-time maps to solver their problems. A challenge for cartographers is to create or improve mapping tools that allow exploration.

Kraak, M.-J. and R. V. Driel (1997). "Principles of hypermaps." Computers and Geosciences23(4): 457-464.

In this paper we describe the functionality of a hypermap. Hypermaps are defined as georeferenced multimedia systems that can structure individual multimedia components with respect to each other and to the map. They will let users navigate multimedia data sets not only by theme but also spatially. The concept discussed here is supplemented by a prototype developed in an authorware environment, using IconAuthor software. The prototype functions are accessible through the World Wide Web.

Kraak, M.-J. and F. Ormeling (2003). Cartography: Visualization of Geospatial Data. New York and London, Prentice Hall.

Krygier, J. and D. Wood (2005). Making Maps: A Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS. New York, Guilford Press.

Lloyd, R., D. Patton, et al. (1996). "Basic-level geographic catagories." Professional Geographer48(2): 181-194.

As we experience places, we learn about those places and generalize information into more abstract geographic categories. Rosch's basic-level theory argues that information known about objects is stored in our memories in a three-layered hierarchy. Data that could be used to test this theory in a geographic context was generated by having subjects make lists of activities, characteristics, and parts associated with 11 familiar geographic categories. An analysis of the distribution of information among geogrpahic categories confirmed two basic preidctions of Rosch's theory. Significantly more information was stored in the basic-level geographic categories country, region, state, city, and neighborhood than in the superordinate category place. Significantly more information was not stored in subordinate categories home country, home region, home state, home city, and home neighborhood. The results suggest that geographic informaiton is efficiently stored in memory so that much of what we know about geographic space is stored in basic-level categories that are both distinctive and informative.

MacEachren, A. M. (1994). Some truth with maps: a primer on symbolization and design. Washington, D.C., Association of American Geographers.

MacEachren, A. M. (1994). Time as a cartographic variable. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 115-130.

MacEachren, A. M. (1995). How maps work: representation, visualization, and design. New York, Guilford Press.

MacEachren, A. M. (2005). Moving geovisualization toward support for group work. Exploring Geovisualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 445-461.

This chapter provides a conceptual framework for research and practice in geovisualization and for visualization as a facilitator for group work with geospatial information. This framework identifies three primary functions for visual representations as a vehicle to support groupwork. First, visual representations can act as the object of collaboration, thus as an entity to discuss, create, or manipulate. Second, visualization can provide support for dialogue (about information, plans, methods, strategies, or decisions). Third, visual representation can provide support for coordinated activity (thus for compiling information, carrying out plans, or executing decisions). The paper addresses each function in a section that sketches the state of the art and identifies some of the key research questions that need attention. Examples from recent and ongoing research in the GeoVISTA Center at Penn State University are used to illustrate the issues discussed. The paper concludes with a call for multidisciplinary collaboration to address issues raised so that we can take full advantage of advances in technology that promise to enable distributed and collaborative work.

MacEachren, A. M., I. Bishop, et al. (1994). Introduction to advances in visualizing spatial data. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 51-59.

MacEachren, A. M., C. A. Brewer, et al. (1998). "Visualizing georeferenced data: representing reliability of health statistics." Environment and Planning A 30: 1547-1561.

The power of human vision to synthesize information and recognize pattern is fundamental to the success of visualization as a scientific method. This same power can mislead investigators who use visualization to explore georeferenced data--if data reliability is not addressed directly in the visualization process. Here we apply an integrated cognitive-semiotic approach to devise and test three methods for depicting reliability. The form of paired representations are compared to two methods in which data and reliability are spatially coincident. A novel method for coincident visually separable depiction of data and data reliability on mortality maps (using a color fill to represent data and a texture overlay to represent reliability) is found to be effective in allowing map users to recognize unreliable data without interfering with their ability to notice clusters and characterize patterns in mortality rates. A coincidence is that visually integral depiction (using color characteristics to represent both data and reliability are found to inhibit perception of clusters that contain some enumeration units with unreliable data, and to make it difficult for users to consider data and reliability independently.

MacEachren, A. M. and D. DiBiase (1991). "Animated maps of aggregate data: conceptual and practical problems." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 18(4): 221-229.

Predictions in the 1960s about the computer's potential to change cartography are finally being fulfilled. Dynamic maps for vehicle navigation, interactive cartographic/statistical tools, and map animation are being investigated actively. As these new environments for mapping become available, we must reevaluate past questions about transformations from reality to data and data to map. In this paper, we consider these transformation questions int he context of statistical map animation. The issues discussed were raised in producing a "map movie" depicting the spread of acquired AIDS over time. Jenks' data model concept is used as the basis for a typology of data models representing phenomena typically depicted by enumeration unit data. The typology is then used to evaluate symbolization decisions for AIDS incidence maps. Implications for symbol selection imposed by dynamic rather than static maps are considered, as are technical issues involved in producing the animation on a microcomputer platform. A hybrid symbolization method that we have termed the "chorodot" is suggested as a way to meet the constratings on symbolization imposed by animation and to represent the appropriate data model for AIDS incidence.

MacEachren, A. M. and J. H. Ganter (1990). "A pattern identification approach to cartographic visualization." Cartographica 27(2): 64-81.

Mental visualization and tools that foster it have recently been acknowledged as significant factors in scientific creativity. Cartography occupies a critical position in the growing array of scientific visualization tools, particularly for geographers, earth scientists and atmospheric scientists. Treating the map as a visualization tool leads to a different perspective on cartography than that generally taken when the map is viewed as a communication device. The goal of cartography and cartographic research shifts from a search for the optimal map to a search for spatial data abstraction methods that prompt pattern identification and lead to insight. A model is proposed for cartographic visualization that stresses the role of maps in data exploration. Emphasis is on the potential for maps to stimulate scientific insight by facilitating the discovery patterns and relationships in spatial data. Following from this pattern identification model for cartographic visualization some perspectives are offered on the design of cartographic visualization tools to facilitate pattern identification. Attention to visualization quality is considered as a key component in the successful development of such tools. In conclusion, the relationship between visualization tools used to foster scientific insight and those developed for other applications such as urban planning or navigation is considered.

MacEachren, A. M. and M.-J. Kraak (1997). "Exploratory cartographic visualization: advancing the agenda." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 335-343.

An approach to the visualization of georeferenced data is presented. This approach is rooted in cartography and emphasizes the use of visual methods in research and decision making. Several definitions proposed within cartography are considered and the links between “cartographic” visualization and scientific visualization more generally are discussed. From this base, a perspective on visualization is articulated in which attention is directed to the goals for use of maps and related georeferenced displays. We argue that a use-based approach is needed in order to develop information processing environments appropriate to distinct stages of scientific research and decision making. The paper concludes by proposing a set of research problems that are prompted by taking a use-based approach to visualization, and then outlining the selection and context of the papers in this special issue.

MacEachren, A. M. and M. S. Monmonier (1992). "Introduction." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 19(4): 197-200.

None.

Mark, D. M. (1992). Counter-intuitive geographic 'facts': clues for spatial reasoning at geographic scales. International Conference GIS: From Space to Territory: Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning. Pisa, Italy, Verlanger-Springer.

'Counter-intuitive' geographic facts provide insight into spatial reasoning at geographic scales. Situations that are judged as counter-intuitive by many people probably result from 'correct' spatial reasoning based on distorted spatial knowledge that is common to populations. Systematic distoritions of latitude and longitude are examined by asking subjects to judge whether certain cities were east or west (or, north or south) of a common city. When the proportion judging each city to be a certain direction is mapped, the isolines reveal systematic distortions of geographic configurations that are consistent with hierarchical knowledge repsresentation and several prototype effects.

Mark, D. M., C. Freksa, et al. (1999). "Cognitive models of geographical space." International Journal of Geographical Information Science 13(8): 747-774.

This paper reviews research in geographical cognition that provides part of the theoretical foundation of geographical information science. Freestanding research streams in cognitive science, behavioural geography, and cartography converged in the last decade or so with work on theoretical foundations for geographical information systems to produce a coherent research community that advances geographical information science, geographical information systems, and the contributing fields and disciplines. Then, we review three high-priority research areas that are the topics for research initiatives within the NCGIA's Project Varenius. Other topics consider but ranked less important this time are also reviewed.

Medyckyj-Scott, D. (1994). Visualization and human-computer interaction in GIS. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 200-211.

Mennis, J. L., D. J. Peuquet, et al. (2000). "A conceptual framework for incorporating cognitive principles into geographical database representation." International Journal of Geographical Information Science 14(6): 501-520.

The advancement of GIS data models to allow the effective utilization of very large heterogeneous geographic databases requires a new approach that incorporates models ofhuman cognition. The ultimate goal is to provide a cooperative human-computer environment for spatial analysis. We describe the pyramid framework as an example of this new approach within the context of some important aspects of how humans conceptually store spatial information. The proposed framework provides the means to create ultiple strctural interpretations of observed geographic data and the ability to build knowledge hierarchies through the application of data mining and other statistical techniques.

Mitas, L., W. M. Brown, et al. (1997). "Role of dynamic cartography in simulations of landscape processes based on multivariate fields." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 437-446.

The development of distributed landscape process models based on multi-variate fields stimulated the integration of GIS and computer cartography with scientific visualization. The new integrated environment supports advanced visual analysis of multivariate georeferenced data by displaying multiple surfaces and volumes in an appropriate projection of 3D space together with vector and point data. Dynamic cartographic models are created by spatial, chronological, and attribute change animation. Interactive visualization using the Internet is supported by a translator of the georeferenced data to Virtual Reality Modeling Language format files. These new tools are used for exploration and presentation of spatio-temporal data, as well as for the support of development and evaluation of a complex soil erosion model. Examples of animations demonstrate the increasing role of dynamic cartography as a research and exploratory tool providing insight into the complex spatial and spatiotemporal relationships of landscape phenomena and their models.

Monmonier, M. S. (1989). "Geographic brushing: enhancing exploratory analysis of the scatterplot matrix." Geographical Analysis 21: 81-84.

The first work where Monmonier hypothesizes the usefulness of being able to go back-and-forth between summary graphics and a map, highlighting and selecting objects on one and influencing the other.

Monmonier, M. S. (1990). "Strategies for the visualization of geographic time-series data." Cartographica 27(1): 30-45.

Strategies for the visual display and analysis of geographic time-series data may be spatial or nonspatial, single-view or multiple-view, static or dynamic. Labels for place names or other geographic metaphors can describe symbols on aspatial time-series charts. Single-static-map strategies incorporate the temporal dimension through techniques ranging from complex point symbols, or temporal glyphs, to generalized trend-surface or flow-linkage maps focusing on movement. The multiple-static-maps strategy juxtaposes two or more maps for a simultaneous visual comparison of the time units, whereas the single-dynamic-map strategy either presents maps ina temporal sequence or shows the evolution of a geographic pattern through a temporally sequenced accretion of symbols. In contrast, the multiple-dynamic-maps strategy provides programmed sequences of multiple views or allows the viewer to interact with maps and statistical diagrams representing different instants or periods of time. Electronic graphics systems have added time to the cartographer's list of visual variables. This paper addresses the graphic portrayal of geographic time-series data. It explores a variety of graphic strategies for the simultaneous symbolic representation of time and spcae, and summarizes these strategies in a conceptual framework of potential use to cartographers, geographers, and graphic designers. These strategies range from statistical diagrmas to maps to video animations to interactive grahpics systems with which the analyst might freely manipulate time as a variable.

Monmonier, M. S. (1992). "Summary graphics for integrated visualization in dynamic cartography." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 19(1): 23-36.

Dynamic cartography calls for a single, more cognitively friendly graphic that summarizes salient relationships in an animated sequence of maps. The theory of human information processing suggests that because the human eye-brain system does not instantaneously process patterns from short-term memory through to long-term memory, information presented toward the end of a dynamic cartographic sequence retards the memory and comprehension of information presented earlier in the sequence. Four types of summary graphics hold particular promise as animation supplements: 1) the centrographic time-series map; used since the late 19th century to portray the westward march of the center of the US population; 2) the biplot, a joint, two-dimensional representation of time units and places based upon two principal componenets; 3) canonical trand-surface analysis, which might extract one or two salient spatial trends, the canonical loadings of which can be plotted in a time-series graph showing when each trend was particularly prominent; and 4) the time-series correlation graph, which reveals temporal variation in the apparent influence of given trends or regionalizations on a particular bivariate correlation. Because an animated sequence of maps can promote understanding of an otherwise complicated summary graphic, the cartographic animation and its summary graphic can be complementary.

Monmonier, M. S. (1993). Mapping it out: expository cartography for the humanities and social sciences. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Monmonier, M. S. and M. Gluck (1994). "Focus groups for design improvement in dynamic cartography." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 21(1): 37-47.

Four focus group interviews provided an evaluation of the concepts of the graphic narrative and the state-and-play metaphor for dynamic cartography. The 26 information, cartographic, and computer specialists who participated in the interviews provided a range of opinion on graphic scripts and the dynamic integration of maps and statistical graphs. Respondents in each session first viewed a graphic script designed to explore the correlation between two spatial distributions and then discussed the script's informativeness, coherence, merit, and deficiencies. Respondents next viewed and discussed a two-part demonstration of portions of a time-series script and of user-control enhancements for the correlation script. Participants found the graphic narrative engaging and informative, were able to discern patterns in the data without identifying false patterns, and contributed a variety of suggestion and criticisms useful in refining both the prototype scripts and the theory of narrative graphics. As a design improvement methodology, focus groups should prove to be useful in addressing a broad range of cartographic problems.

Montello, D. R. and S. M. Freundschuh (1995). "Sources of spatial knowledge and their implications for GIS: an introduction." Geographical Systems 2: 169-176.

What and how people think about geographic space depends in important ways on how knowledge of the properties of that space, and of the objects and events within that space, has been acquired. The premise of this special issue of Geographical Systems is that understanding human perception and cognition of space is necessary in order to arrive at a complete understanding of human reasoning, decision-making, and behavior that involves knowledge of space. In particular, it is necessary to understand how spatial knowledge and its use differs as a function of the source from which that knowledge is acquired. Does this idea have implications for the design and use of geographical information systems? It is the contention of this issue that it does. The purpose here, thereofre, is to justify these premises and investigate ways in which they might be realized.

The five papers included in this issue are based on talks given at a pair of special sessions held at the 1994 Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers in San Francisco, California. The theme of those sessions was "sources of spatial knowledge and resulting cognitive representations." Session participants were invited to give papers dealing with basic science questions about how spatial knowledge and reasoning might be influenced by the source from which knowledge is acquired. The varied backgrounds of the participants reflect the multidisciplinary (hopefully interdisciplinary) nature of this question--geogrpahers, cartographers, and psychologists of various stripe, including cognitive, environmental, and developmental. It is fair to say that this represents only a few of the disciplines that can speak to the issues. A comprehensive list might also include linguists, computer scientists, anthropologists, philosophers, art historians, planners, architects, and communication specialists--perhaps others.

Muehrcke, P. C. and J. O. Muehrcke (1992). Map use: reading, analysis, and interpretation. Madison, WI, JP Publications.

Neves, N., J. P. Silva, et al. (1997). "Cognitive spaces and metaphors: a solution for interacting with spatial data." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 483-488.

Spatial information analysis and handling requires the use of three cognitive spaces: haptic, pictorial and transperceptual. Geographical information systems interfaces do not yet integrate these three spaces in the same working environment. We present an interface designed to integrate the three cognitive spaces: The Virtual GIS Room — an interface solution for geographical information systems users, using popular tools such as digitizing tablets and mice (or pens) along with position and orientation sensors and head mounted displays, more popular in typical virtual environments. The use of immersive virtual environments as an add-on to traditional geographical information systems enhances the user ability to explore and visualize data, providing the transperceptual space missing in the usual desktop metaphor.

Openshaw, S., D. Waugh, et al. (1994). Some ideas about the use of map animation as a spatial analysis tool. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 131-138.

Peuquet, D. J. (1994). "It's about time: a conceptual framework for the representation of temporal dynamics in geographic information systems." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84(3): 441-461.

In this paper, Peuquet outlines her now famous "Triad framework" for representing spatio-temporal relations and categorizing such data. She argues that field- and object-based approaches to representation are not mutually exclusive. In fact, field-attributes tell us a thing's location (where); object-based attributes tell us about the thing (what); and temporal attributes tell us at what time something is being viewed (when). All three of these combine to create a very informative and searchable matrix for spatial information.

Peuquet, D. J. (2002). Representations of Space and Time. New York and London, The Guilford Press.

Plaisant, C. (2005). Information visualization and the challenge of universal usability. Exploring Visualization. J. A. Dykes, A. M. MacEachren and M.-J. Kraak. Oxford, Elsevier: 53-82.

Information visualization aims to provide compact graphical presentations and user interfaces for interactively manipulating large numbers of items. We present a simple 'data by tasks taxonomy' then discuss the challenges of providing universal usability, with example applications using geo-referenced data. Information visualization has been shown to be a powerful visual thinking or decision tool but it is becoming important for services to reach and empower every citizen. Technological advances are needed to deal with user diversity (age, language, disabilities, etc.) but also with the variety of technology used (screen size, network speed, etc.) and the gap in user's knowledge (general knowledge, knowledge of the application domain, of the interface syntax or semantic.) We present examples that illustrate how those challenges can be addressed.

Rhyne, T. M. (1997). "Going virtual with geographic information and scientific visualization." Computers and Geosciences 23(4): 489-491.

Four levels of integration methods for Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Scientific Visualization (SciVis) are described. They are: rudimentary (minimal data sharing); operational (consistency of data); functional (transparent communication); and merged (comprehensive toolkit). The role of virtual reality and World Wide Web (WWW) developments for geographic visualization are also highlighted.

Robinson, A. H., J. L. Morrison, et al. (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Slocum, T. A. and S. L. Egbert (1993). "Knowledge acquisition from choropleth maps." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 20(2): 83-95.

Today's computer graphics technology enables map users to acquire spatial knowledge in ways not possible with traditional static displays; for example, classes of data on a choropleth map can be sequenced from low to high values. Although sequencing and related approaches are often judged to be novel and exciting, it is unkonwn whether such approaches enhance or diminish knowledge acquisition. In a broader vein, we might ask what is the optimal technique for acquiring knowledge from a choropleth map? The optimal technique might involve a novel display approach, or modifying a method for learning a traditional static display. In this vein, two experiments were conducted. In the first, learning procedures common to experienced choropleth map users were ascertained. Using these procedures and others developed in a prior study, and their knowledge as cartographers, the authors developed a set of presumably effective procedures. In the second experiment, three choropleth display approaches were compared for their effect on knowledge acquisition: (1) a static map in which no procedures were taught (control group); (2) a static map in which effective procedures were taught (effective procedures group); and (3) a sequenced map in which the nature of sequencing was determined, in part, by effective procedures (sequenced group). The results revealed no significant difference among the three groups in terms of speed or accuracy, but the effective procedures group responded fastest on all questions, and the control group performed faster than the sequenced group on 70% of the questions.

Slocum, T. A., R. B. McMaster, et al. (2005). Thematic cartography and geographic visualization. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson Prentice Hall.

Smith, B. and D. M. Mark (2001). "Geographical categories: an ontological investigation." International Journal of Geographical Information Science 15(7): 591-612.

This paper reports the results of a series of experiments designed to establish how non-expert subjects conceptualize geospatial phenomena. Subjects were asked to give examples of geographical categories in response to a series of diOEerently phrased elicitations. The results yield an ontology of geographical categories—a catalogue of the prime geospatial concepts and categories shared in common by human subjects independently of their exposure to scientiŽ c geography. When combined with nouns such as feature and object, the adjective eographic elicited almost exclusively elements of the physical environment of geographical scale or size, such as mountain, lake, and river. The phrase things that could be portrayed on a map, on the other hand, produced many geographical scale artefacts (roads, cities, etc.) and Ž at objects (states, countries, etc.), as well as some physical feature types. These data reveal considerable mismatch as between the meanings assigned to the terms ‘geography’ and ‘geographic’ by scientiŽ c geographers and by ordinary subjects, so that scientiŽ c geographers are not in fact studying geographical phenomena as such phenomena are conceptualized by na¨ve subjects. The data suggest, rather, a special role in determining the subject-matter of scientiic geography for the concept of what can be portrayed on a map. This work has implications for work on usability and interoperability in geographical information science, and it throws light also on subtle and hitherto unexplored ways in which ontological terms such as ‘object’, ‘entity’, and ‘feature’ interact with geographical concepts.

Sui, D. Z. and M. F. Goodchild (2001). "GIS as media?" International Journal of Geographical Information Science 15(5): 387-390.

Tobler, W. (1970). "A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region." Economic Geography 46: 234-240.

Tufte, E. R. (1983). The visual display of quantitative information. Cheshire, Conn., Graphics Press.

Tufte, E. R. (1991). Envisioning Information. Cheshire, Conn., Graphics Press.

Tukey, J. W. (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis. Reading, Addison-Wesley.

Turk, A. (1994). Cogent GIS visualizations. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 26-33.

Tversky, B., J. B. Morrison, et al. (1999). "Three spaces of spatial cognition." Professional Geographer 51(4): 516-524.

Wood, D. and J. Fels (1986). "Designs on signs: myth and meaning in maps." Cartographica23(3): 54-103.

Wood, D. and J. Fels (1992). The Power of Maps. New York, Guilford Press.

Wood, M. (1994). The traditional map as a visualization technique. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. West Sussex, England, John Wiley and Sons Ltd: 9-17.

Wood, M. and K. Brodlie (1994). ViSC and GIS: Some fundamental considerations. Visualization in Geographical Information Systems. H. M. Hearnshaw and D. J. Unwin. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons: 3-8.